In this paper, on the basis of an institutional approach, it is analyzed how fair the “law of expansion” of F. Ratzel is in the current situation of the formation of a new world order. It is shown that in modern conditions the instinct of self-preservation induces social systems not to territorial expansion due to an increase in the occupied geographical space, but to integration in various forms, which is based on a single normative approach to the mechanisms of the functioning of the union. In this sense, integration is a kind of expansion of the space occupied by society. Integration unions can increase, but up to a certain limit (saturation limit), determined not by the boundaries of geographical space, but by the possibility of developing a common position on the main issues of functioning, common norms and practices. As a rule, alliances are not absolutely symmetrical and include the “core” and the periphery of integration. The former include the most economically and politically strong states. At the same time, due to the asymmetry of the unions, the “core” institutions are transplanted to the periphery and there is a bidirectional institutional diffusion, which is due to the desire for institutional convergence, and this facilitates interaction within the union. Thus, “channels” for the institutional expansion of integrable societies are formed within the unions. Transplantation and diffusion of institutions are the mechanisms for the implementation of expansion in modern conditions. It is shown that when integrating social systems in order to mitigate possible institutional imbalances, the action of institutions that are complementary to the dominant ones in the institutional matrix is included: when integrating X-matrix countries - market ones, and vice versa.

The article presents the results of a study of the peacekeeping mission conducted by the Russian peacekeeping forces in Nagorno-Karabakh in 2020–2023 and assesses its effectiveness. According to the trilateral agreement signed on November 10, 2020 by the Presidents of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Prime Minister of the Republic of Armenia, Russian peacekeepers were introduced into Nagorno-Karabakh. After the signed trilateral agreement, two more agreements followed, which fixed effective activities and strengthened the need for the presence of peacekeepers in the region. In December 2022, Azerbaijani so-called “eco-activists” blocked the only road (the Lachin Corridor) connecting Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia, blocking the free movement of people and goods, hindering the activities of peacekeepers and creating a humanitarian crisis for the population of Nagorno- Karabakh.

The visit of the President of the People’s Republic of China to the Russian Federation attracted a lot of attention from the Chinese media, which was manifested in a large number of publications on this topic in the media and social networks. The purpose of the study was to analyze news reports and messages on the Weibo social network about the state visit of the President of the People’s Republic of China to the Russian Federation and determine its role in strengthening bilateral relations between China and Russia. For the first time, the main principles of China’s foreign diplomacy, implemented in a particular state visit, were considered by the example of how they were perceived by public opinion. A content analysis of news reports from mainstream Chinese media showed that this diplomatic move is highly appreciated. The authors of the publications noted the high significance and effectiveness of this visit. A statistical analysis of publications on the Weibo social network showed that public opinion also generally assesses Xi Jinping’s visit to Russia positively, paying attention to the content side of Russian-Chinese relations. In general, strengthening and deepening the comprehensive strategic partnership between China and Russia in the new era is a strategic choice made by countries based on the domestic political and domestic economic situation, which is in line with the fundamental interests of the peoples of the two countries and the development trend of international relations. The results of the study showed that China has always pursued an independent foreign policy, and promoting the development of Russian-Chinese relations at a high level is a strategic choice made by China, taking into account its internal development and overall diplomatic strategy.

The article explores the trends in the development of hydrogen energy both in the world in general and in Kazakhstan in particular. The author considers the growing interest in hydrogen energy in the context of the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and search for alternative energy sources. The article analyzes key international and national initiatives in the field of hydrogen energy, including the development of technologies for the production, storage and use of hydrogen. Particular attention is paid to the role of Kazakhstan in the development of hydrogen energy and its cooperation with other countries, especially with the EU and Japan, which has significant experience in this area. The author draws conclusions about the prospects for hydrogen energy.

The article deals with the contractual legal foundations of military-technical cooperation between the Republic of Armenia and the Russian Federation. The features of the development of military-technical cooperation, events affecting the formation of its contractual legal framework within the framework of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the significance of cooperation are shown.

This article examines one of the most actual issues of Spanish foreign policy: the role of Spain in Ibero-American cooperation. The historical background and claims of Spain and Morocco to these disputed territories, which are used by it to substantiate its claims, are presented. The problem is far from being resolved: the migrant crisis in Ceuta in May 2021 and Morocco’s claims to the cities of Ceuta and Melilla confirm the difficult situation in the Strait region for Spanish foreign policy. The article deals with territorial issues in the Strait, in which Spain has jurisdiction, powers and special responsibility, using cooperation with the EU as a short- and long-term strategy.

This article provides an analysis of the trends in the development of friendly Azerbaijani-Turkish communications. The increasing integration of the two states determines not only the bilateral, but also the foreign policy communications of the countries. Azerbaijan pursues a multi-vector and sovereign foreign policy, but many of the decisions directly meet the interests of the Turkish-Azerbaijani alliance and contribute to further integration. Turkization and strengthening of cooperation with NATO are the main accents of the current Azerbaijani agenda on the world stage.

The materials of the international round table “Religious institutions as regulators of moral principles in geopolitics”, held as part of the Christmas Readings “Global challenges of modernity and the spiritual choice of man” by the National Research Institute for the Communications Development (NIIRK), the Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, the International Public Association “Christian Educational Center named after Saints Methodius and Cyril”. The article reflects the views of Russian and Belarusian scientists on the influence of geopolitics on the activities of religious institutions, their communication with the state and society, the influence of religion on geopolitical and political decisions. The idea is expressed about the moral leadership of the church in modern society and politics, the youth education. The problem of developing the communication skills of clergy, new forms of information in the context of digitalization and the development of the information society is considered. The compensatory function of religious institutions in the socio-cultural sphere, aimed at smoothing emerging institutional imbalances and balanced development of society, is substantiated.

The article is devoted to the topical after the collapse of the USSR problem of regional integration of sovereign countries for the joint solution of geopolitical, socioeconomic, general cultural and other tasks. The article analyzes the situation associated with the ambiguity of international legal criteria for the recognition of newly formed states and the inconsistency in the interpretation of the right of peoples to equality and self-determination. The historical justification is given and the legal basis for the entry of the Republic of South Ossetia into the Russian Federation as a new subject is described. It is shown that the reunification of two Ossetias, North and South, which created a new historical reality in the life of the Ossetian ethnic group, became the basis for the decision of the leadership of South Ossetia to join Russia by holding a referendum. The circumstances of the postponement of the referendum for an indefinite period are substantiated. The author concluded that the integration of Russia and South Ossetia will lead mainly to positive consequences for both states.

The article discusses the emergence and development of migration between the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Russian Federation. The reasons for the increase in migration from Uzbekistan to Russia over the years of independence are analyzed. The main problems faced by Uzbek labor migrants in Russia are identified. The information on the volume of money transfers from Russia to Uzbekistan year by year is presented, the factors influencing its increase or decrease are analyzed.

The article examines the role and significance of the military formations of the Central Asian Military District that participated in the battles near Moscow during the Great Patriotic War. The novelty of the article lies in the fact that the author for the first time analyzed previously classified and therefore inaccessible archival documents and newly published materials about the heroism of the soldiers of the Central Asian Military District, who took their rightful place in the ranks of the defenders of Moscow. At the end of 1941, 21 cavalry and 16 rifle divisions, 25 rifle brigades were formed in the Central Asian Military District. The entry of the Soviet Union into World War II dramatically increased the potential of progressive forces opposing fascism, as a country with great military and economic potential, with peoples having heroic traditions, entered the war.

The article analyzes Japan’s foreign policy during the period of Yoshihide Suga’s activity as Prime Minister (2020-2021): the specifics of diplomacy and security activities, the common interests of Japan with other countries, the specifics of rapprochement and forms of interaction with different countries. The results of Japan’s foreign policy in Northeast Asia in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, Japan’s military cooperation within the quadrilateral alliance “Quad” are presented.

In the article, based on a large number of archival documents, some of which were first put into scientific circulation, the research activities and problems of scientific research by V.M.Khvostov are considered. The author analyzed two main directions in the work of the scientist: the history of diplomacy and international relations; problems of general and national history (mainly the events of world wars). The contribution of V.M.Khvostov to the study of this issue is determined, his creative biography is considered as one of the models of the life and career of a scientist in the Soviet political and historiographic space.